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Today being Halloween, I decided to fuck with the major retard at school when I came out of science for break. He was dressed as Ash. Knowing this was going to happen, I brough a Mudkips doll. Thus I started the conversation, making sure no one saw me.

"So I heard you like Mudkips..." "Mudkips? I LUUUUUUUUUUUUVE MUDKIPS." "O RLY? So, would you ever fuck a Mudkips, that is.." (he cuts me off before I could said 'if you were a mudkips') "OF COURSE." "Well I just happen to have a Mudkips here, and."

Before I finished the sentence, which would have resulted in me hitting him across the face with the doll, he grabbed it. In one swift motion his pants were down and he was violenly humping it. Not to get between a man and his Mudkips I started to walk away, because there is no way I'd be caught wrestling a half-naked crazy guy humping a Mudkips.

Needles to say, within 5 to 10 seconds, some girls saw him and started screaming. I cooly walked into a restroom, pretending nothing had ever happened; not that I had intended that outcome, but now that it was in play I didn't want to be involved.

I came back two minutes later, and like any wanton act on school grounds there was now a huge crowd round him. He was still fucking it and baying this real fucked up 'EEEEEEEEEEINNNNF EEEEEEEEEEINNNF' sound. Suddenly a scuffle broke out in the middle, meaning he probably did something stupid.

I asked someone what had happened. A girlfriend of one of the football players tried to get him to stop, but he bit her for trying to take it away. Someone called in a few football players (all dressed up like Road Warrior) who proceeded to pummel the shit out of the guy. Meanwhile the school police were freaking out and having trouble getting in to the situation.

A few minutes later the intruder alarm went off and we were shuffled into classrooms. Over the intercom the principal announced that someone had thrown a flaming plush toy into the library. Uh.. what the hell.

So we were kept there and about 30 minutes later the principal came on again. This time he was saying that whoever was behind the beating should turn themselves in. All of a sudden this woman began yelling "I WILL SUE YOU FOR DAMAGES. YOU LITTLE PUNKS, I'M GONNA SUE..." and it was cut off.

I asked an office later what had happened. Apparently his mother had come to pick him up and threatened to sue for the beating and 'whatever else happened.' The school threatened to counter-sue because of lewd conduct, inciting a riot, and starting a fight.

So I ask you: do you like Mudkips?
 
Here's the deal, I'gotten myself a PS2 and Swap Magic 3.6 plus and a flip top case (the website told me it was 3.8 coder but whatever) The first time i tried it I booted up and got the menu booted but I never say any screen that shuld say "SWAP" (DVD version) and then i saw two plastic parts in a tiny plastic bag. So I took appart my PS2 to put the peaces in it. But then the stupid flip top case is almost impossible to fit the PS2, took out the plastics again, too try some more without them.

And now when I try to boot the Swap Magic discs, both the CD and DVD, noone is working, I see the Playstation logo, and then the screen turn black. A few seconds after that, the disk stops spinning... Anyone have a clue of what it might be?

.. was going to post it on some other forum so more people could see and help me
smile.gif
 
QUOTE(coolbho3000 @ Sep 27 2007 said:
If pro is the opposite of con, wouldn't congress be the opposite of progress?"
Click to expand...

lololololololololololol


hmm now lets see what i have copied!!






oh ya, lol, i just changed me sig to a bigger version of it.. maybe i'll change it back lol
tongue.gif
*checks if too big, if so then changes*
 
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pewpz
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I was testing Umlaut characters in our application. Now you know what those two dots above certain vowels are called.
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Some sort of thing while taking notes for Econ class.
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Full Text:COPYRIGHT 2007 Frost & Sullivan

INTRODUCTION

Water is an essential basis for life. It is of utmost importance for health and dignity, and without continuous access to clean water, social and economic development is simply not feasible. The production of food and industrial goods as well as human well-being in social communities are highly dependent on this resource, which became a key issue of international development strategies in the last few decades. The challenge is obvious. The pressure on water resources has increased tremendously despite the fact that significant progress in the improvement of water supply and water sanitation could be observed over the past few decades. The dynamic growth of both the global population as well as economic development has simply absorbed these achievements. At the beginning of the new millennium 1.1 billion people are without access to clean water and 2.4 billion people have no access to sanitation (United Nations Environment Program [UNEP] 2000). The overexploitation of water resources has caused a direct threat to agricultural production in a number of regions and polluted water impacts industrial production negatively.

Most of the major rivers found in the world are highly polluted, which leads to the poisoning of the surrounding ecosystems and poses a threat to human beings. One of the most significant effects of poor water supply and water sanitation are severe health hazards. For instance, approximately 4 billion cases of diarrhoea annually cause 2.2 million deaths, mostly among children under the age of five. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions would be able to reduce diarrhoea on average by between one-quarter and one-third.

The consumption of water has naturally been increasing over the years. This has resulted in the use of water being tripled globally since 1950, but surprisingly one out of every six persons does not have access to safe drinking water. Therefore, water-related problems have been increasingly recognized as one of the most serious environmental threats to mankind. According to WHO and UNICEF the lack of access to a safe water supply and sanitation results in affecting the health of 1.2 billion people annually. UNEP sources say that though a third of the world's populations live in countries that suffer from moderate-to-high water stress, the consumption of water is more than 10% of renewable freshwater resources.

For a long time, water strategies mostly emphasized the improvement of water supply schemes. Now people are keener on wastewater treatment and reuse, which provides water sustainability.

There are many factors that may be attributed to the above-mentioned problems. Inadequate water management has accelerated the depletion of water resources (groundwater and surface water). The quality of existing water resources has also been degraded by domestic and industrial pollution sources. In certain areas, there have been cases of water being withdrawn from water resources that get polluted due to the lack of sanitation infrastructure and services. There have also been cases of overpumping of groundwater that has compounded water quality degradation caused by salts, pesticides, naturally occurring arsenic, and other pollutants. Urban areas have also seen an increasing need for water due to population growth, industrial development, and the expansion of irrigated peri-urban agriculture.

With the above-mentioned challenges, there has been an urgent need to improve the quality and quantity of water that is available. There are various approaches (both modern and traditional) being employed across the world in order to increase the efficient use of water and augment the sources of water. Among the various approaches, water and wastewater reuse has become increasingly important in resource management. Water and wastewater reuse serves as a solution for both environmental and economic reasons. The reuse of wastewater has applications primarily in the agriculture sector and also in industrial, household, and urban applications. Agriculture still lays claim to a large reuse volume and this is expected to increase in the future, especially in developing countries.

In developed countries proper methods of water-wastewater collection and treatment have been used and therefore the practice of water and wastewater reuse is also quite prominent. This is because there is greater attention given to sanitation, public health, and environmental protection in developed countries. However, this is not the case in developing countries, owing to the lack of appropriate capacity and resources that help in reinforcing strict water and wastewater standards for reuse. Wastewaters being used for irrigational purposes are a very common practice and therefore it is essential to make sure that the water doesn't pose a major threat to farmers as well as consumers of those agricultural products.

The recycled wastewater could serve as a more dependable source of water that could be used for some applications. This is because the quantity and quality of wastewater is more consistent than the freshwater available, as droughts and other climatic conditions do not have much influence on the quality of wastewater generation. With the requisite treatment given to the wastewaters they can meet specific applications such as toilet flushing, cooling water, and other applications. This kind of reuse of treated wastewater is popular in arid climates where there is a growing demand for water. In some instances there have been wastewaters that contain useful substances such as organic carbon and nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous. This helps in the adoption of this nutrient-rich water for agriculture and landscaping that lead to the reduction of fertilizer applications.

Yet another benefit of reusing water or wastewater is the reduced water consumption and treatment needs, which also reduces the costs associated with it. In most applications, such as agricultural or industrial, the cost of reusing wastewater is less expensive than using freshwater. In this case there is a reduction of the infrastructure requirements that are essential for advanced water and wastewater treatment. For example, there are areas with adequate water resources and also a growing urban population. This has resulted in increased water consumption, both on a per capita and total basis. In order to meet such high demands for water it is essential to develop large-scale water resources and associated infrastructure. When water and wastewater are being reused some of the water demand and, therefore, additional infrastructure requirements are met, and the resulting financial and environmental impacts can be reduced. In some cases they could even be eliminated.

If the practice of treating and reusing water and wastewater is being adopted then the freshwater that is already available can used for applications that require a higher quality of water such as drinking. This would help in more sustainable resource utilization.

Water and wastewater reuse can help in the lesser contamination of waterways, wetlands, flora, and fauna. It can reduce the level of nutrients and other pollutants entering these common waterways and sensitive marine environments by reducing wastewater discharges.

Reclaimed water that originated from municipal wastewater normally contains nutrients. When this water is used to irrigate the land less fertilizers are needed for crop growth. This water, when reused, serves as an advantage for the agricultural sector in a direct way and to the tourism and fishing industries (when nutrients flow into waterways and result in pollution).

This article discusses prominent technologies such as decentralized wastewater treatment, desalination technologies, and nanotechnology, which are slowly gaining momentum in the industry.

Water Treatment

Water treatment in the municipal sector has a number of stages for processing wastewater. This would ensure that a high quality of the water is obtained after treatment. The various stages are as follows:

Primary Treatment

This stage involves the collection and screening of the water from various sources such as rivers and tanks. The initial storage of the water to be treated is done in this stage, which generally is referred to as pumping and containment. The first step being screening, it ensures the removal of large debris such as sticks, leaves, trash, and other particles that may hinder the subsequent purification stages.

In some cases the water is collected and allowed to be stored for a few days so that natural biological purification takes place. This step is essential when slow sand filtration is adopted. In those cases where water exhibits a lot of hardness, preconditioning is carried out in which the water is treated with sodium carbonate to precipitate the calcium carbonate.

In certain other cases, the incoming water that is to be treated is prechlorinated. This ensures the minimization of the growth of fouling organisms in the tanks and the pipes that transport the water.

Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment involves the removal of fine solids and a majority of contaminants using units such as filters, coagulation units, flocculation units, and membranes. It also involves the adjustment of the pH in the water so that it facilitates the further treatment of water. In case the water is acidic then lime or soda ash is added in order to raise the pH to facilitate coagulation and flocculation. Coagulation and flocculation use chemicals to remove the suspended particles so that they settle down or stick to the sand or other granular particles.

A sedimentation tank--also called a clarifier or settling basin--is a unit that is adopted in the secondary treatment. It is a large tank in which water flows very slowly and allows the settling of the floc to the bottom of the tank.

Filtration is also adopted in this stage. The most common type of filter that is adopted is the rapid sand filter. Slow sand filters and membrane technologies are sometimes employed in the secondary treatment.

Tertiary Treatment

In this stage the pH is brought to the normal standard range, which is approximately 7. Polishing and carbon treatment to remove taste, smell, and disinfection are some of the processes that are adopted at this stage.

Disinfection

Disinfection is generally the last step that is adopted for the purification of drinking water. This ensures the removal of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and Shigella, and protozoans. Disinfection is generally done by methods such as chlorination, ozonation, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, by the addition of chloramines and chlorine dioxide. Other treatments such as boiling the water to kill microorganisms, fluoridation to remove fluorides, or water conditioning for the removal of radium could also be adopted.

Wastewater Treatment

Various stages of wastewater treatment are summarized below. Various units such as settling tank, aeration tank, and activated sludge process, which are used in the various stages, are also described.

Preliminary Treatment

Removal of wastewater constituents such as rags, sticks, floatable substances, grit, and grease happens in this phase. These constituents may cause maintenance and operational problems with the treatment operations, processes, and ancillary systems. Units such as screens, grit removable units, comminutors, macerators, and grinders are used in this stage. Imhoff tanks could be employed here for removing grease from the wastewater.

Primary Treatment

Removal of a portion of suspended solids and organic matter from the wastewater occurs in this stage. Units such as settling tank, aeration units, sedimentation tanks, and Imhoff tanks could be employed here so that a part of the suspended solids and organic matter could be removed. These units store the wastewater for a specified time, which is called the retention time. No chemicals are employed in this stage. The heavy particles settle down naturally, resulting in the reduction of a portion of suspended solids and organic matter.

Advanced Primary Treatment

Advanced primary treatment level is the next stage in the treatment of wastewater. Here, an enhanced removal of the suspended solids and the organic matter from the wastewater takes place. This is normally accomplished by the addition of chemicals or filtration units. Units such as mixing tanks, coagulation tanks, and chemical precipitation tanks are normally adopted.

Secondary Treatment

Once the advanced primary treatment is over, the next stage is the secondary treatment of wastewater. Here, the removal of biodegradable organic matter that is in suspension and the removal of suspended solids also takes place. Activated sludge process and the trickling filter are some of the examples of methods that are used in this stage. Activated sludge process is referred to as suspended growth biological treatment process and trickling filter is referred to as the attached growth and combined biological treatment process. The above alternate names are because of the mechanism the bacteria follow to treat the contaminants.

Secondary Treatment along with Nutrient Level

The next stage is the removal of nutrients along with the secondary treatment. Therefore, the removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids and nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous happens in this stage. Denitrification process is one of the examples of the various processes that are adopted in this phase.

Tertiary Treatment

In the case of tertiary treatment, residual suspended solids that remain after the secondary treatment are removed. This is normally done with the help of granular medium filtration or microscreens. Disinfection is also a part of tertiary treatment. This is normally done by the method of chlorination. Sometimes nutrient removal is also included as a part of tertiary treatment.

Advanced Treatment

Generally, tertiary treatment is the last stage of any wastewater treatment process. But in case there is a requirement to increase the quality of the effluent then the advanced treatment comes into the picture. Advanced treatment is generally adopted when there is a requirement for the various water reuse applications. This stage generally involves the removal of dissolved and suspended solids that remain after the normal biological treatment. Membrane technologies, adsorbents, gas stripping, and distillation processes are adopted in this stage.

TECHNOLOGIES THAT COULD BE ADOPTED FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER REUSE

Nanotechnology

The environmental sector has been one of the niche areas of application when compared to other widespread applications of nanotechnology. Some of the nanotechnologies that are adopted in the environmental sector especially for water and wastewater treatment are described below:

* Nanomembranes and nanoporous polymers for water purification, desalination, and detoxification.

* Nanosensors for the detection of contaminants and pathogens.

* Nanoporous zeolites for water purification.

* Nanocatalysts and magnetic nanoparticles for water treatment and remediation.

* Titanium dioxide (Ti[O.sub.2]) nanoparticles for the catalytic degradation of water pollutants.

In the case of water and wastewater treatment, nanotechnology can be used only in the tertiary treatment stage or in the advanced treatment stage wherein the other treatment stages would again involve the removal of sticks, leaves, trash, grease, suspended particles, colloidal substances, odor, organic substances, and adjustment of pH. Sometimes, in the case of water treatment, they are used in the secondary treatment stage.

Desalination Technologies

Desalination is the removal of salts and organic substances that cause disinfection byproducts. The applications of desalination technologies have been in brackish water, seawater, wastewater, and so on.

Out of the various membrane desalination processes, membrane separation and thermal separation have been prominent. Under membrane separation, reverse osmosis (RO) and electro dialysis (ED) have been widely used; and in the thermal separation process, multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation, multi-effect distillation (MED), and mechanical vapor compression are more accepted.

The adoption of these processes depends on many factors; some of them are raw water characteristics, the geographic location of the plant or unit, the economy of the client, the kind of energy present, and so on. Most dependent factors are the raw water quality and the geographic location.

RO, MSF, and MED processes do dominate the desalination market in both seawater and brackish water applications with an approximate total share of 90%.

Thermal Separation

The thermal separation method is used when total dissolved solids (TDS) in water or wastewater ranges from 30,000 mg/l to 500,000 mg/l. The operating temperatures of the plant varies from 35 degrees C to 120 degrees C. This is a centuries-old technology; however, it is still widely used in the Middle East as the source of thermal energy is less expensive there. In general, thermal separation is expensive in desalination technologies.

Multi-Stage Flash

In the MSF process, seawater is heated in a vessel called a brine heater. The water is then transferred to another vessel, called a stage, where the pressure is such that the water will immediately boil. In effect, the water 'flashes' into steam. The unconverted water is then passed onto another stage where a lower pressure is maintained and further 'flashing' occurs, without the introduction of more heat. An MSF plant can have up to 40 stages. The steam generated in this process is then converted to fresh water by condensing it in tubes of heat exchangers that run through each stage.

Multi-Effect Distillation

MED, like MSF, is conducted in a series of vessels (effects) and uses the principle of reducing the ambient pressure in the various effects. This allows the seawater, which is fed, to go through multiple stages of boiling without the provision of additional heat after the first effect. In the case of MED the seawater first enters the first effect and the temperature of the water is raised to the boiling point by being preheated in the tubes. The feed is sprayed or distributed on the surface of the evaporator tubes in order to increase the evaporation. The tubes are heated by steam, from a boiler or other sources, which is condensed on the opposite side of the tubes. The condensate from the boiler steam is recycled to the boiler for reuse.

Vacuum Vapor Compression

Vapor compression is generally adopted for small- or medium-scale seawater desalting units. Heat that is required to evaporate the water comes from the compression of the vapor rather than the direct exchange of heat from steam that is being produced in the boiler. This is effectively done in an MED process wherein the vapor is compressed, either by mechanical or thermo compression.

Membrane Technology

Reverse Osmosis

RO operates with a TDS ranging from 500 mg/l to 50,000 mg/l and the operating temperature would vary from 0 degrees C to 65 degrees C. There was a renewed interest in RO in the 1980s when there was a drought in the United States. When compared to the thermal separation process, this requires low energy and is less expensive.

In the case of water filtration, the process can only remove suspended materials larger than 1 micrometer. However, in the case of RO elimination of dissolved solids, bacteria, viruses, and other germs are present (which is not the case in conventional water filtration). RO is generally a pressure driven system and this feature enables the removal of dissolved solutes. They are basically adopted for desalinating seawater for potable water. Some of the unique features of RO is that it is a low energy process and it involves no phase change.

RO membranes have the smallest pore structure in commercially available membranes, with a pore diameter ranging from approximately 5 angstrom to 15 angstrom (0.5 nm to 1.5 nm). The smaller pore size allows the smallest organic particles to pass through the membrane. Anything between 95% and 99% of the inorganic salts and the organics are also rejected by the membrane.

This technology is suitable for use in regions where seawater or brackish groundwater is readily available.

Electrodialysis (ED)

The TDS range for ED is from 500 mg/l to 3000 mg/l and the operating temperature for ED is 0 to 65 degrees C. This process is cost competitive with RO in the TDS range; however, RO is nowadays the process of choice due to the quality of water it generates and the improved membranes that give high productivity at a low cost. The lowest possible operating temperature for RO and ED is above freezing temperature.

Nanofiltration

Since RO cannot be used for partial and/or selective demineralization, nanofiltration (NF) is more suitable for producing drinking water directly without the need for remineralization. So far, however, the high price for desalting water with NF has limited its application to very low brackish waters. But NF's ability to demineralize solutions partly or selectively makes it an interesting technique. Thus, when drinking water is prepared from seawater, it may constitute a preliminary treatment upstream from RO, MSF, or MED. By reducing the load off these processes, it decreases the overall energy consumption and increases the flow yield of salt water to fresh water.

Decentralized Wastewater Treatment

Almost all the organic rich wastewater, both industrial and domestic, is treated using conventional biological treatment systems, such as the activated sludge process. The high dependency on power where the power supply is highly irregular and a high operating cost makes these systems nonoperational. But very little effort has been made to implement an alternative system, which is less complicated in operation, has a low operating cost, and is less dependent on power.

Most small- and medium-sized communities in developing countries cannot afford the use of highly sophisticated wastewater treatment systems available in today's market. Besides the capital investment, these systems also have high-energy consumption and maintenance regimes. This significant increase in demand for wastewater treatment systems calls for a need to plan, design, and construct effective, reliable, cost-efficient, and custom-made decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS). The DEWATS concept is offered as a viable option that uses reliable, long-lasting, and affordable technique. One of the principal points of DEWATS approaches is anaerobic treatment. High temperature is a very important factor suitable for anaerobic treatment. Tropical conditions thereby favor the use of this treatment system. Therefore, in the present study, the performance of three DEWATS units--anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), anaerobic filter (AF), and planted gravel filter (PGF)--were investigated in certain combinations for sewage treatment. The treated wastewater can then be used for irrigational purposes or toilet flushing; and there have been cases where the biogas (due to anaerobic treatment) is collected for kitchen purposes.

Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR)

ABR is considered as a DEWATS unit with baffles in every compartment that help in the treatment of wastewater. It involves anaerobic degradation of suspended and dissolved solids as in the case of anaerobic filter and they are suitable for industrial wastewaters and domestic wastewaters also.

Anaerobic Filter (AF)

The AF is a unit with a filter media, such as gravel or tiles, present in every compartment that help in the treatment of wastewater. The movement of wastewater is from the bottom to the top. It involves the anaerobic degradation of suspended and dissolved solids and they are suitable for presettled domestic and industrial wastewater.

Planted Gravel Filter (PGF)

PGF is a DEWATS unit that has reeds grown on filter media such as gravel and the wastewater is allowed to pass through the media, thereby touching the roots of the reeds where the bacteria is in action. The reeds that are planted have a hollow stem, which allows the air to be transported from the top to the roots. It is basically the aerobic, facultative, and anaerobic degradation of dissolved and fine suspended solids and pathogen removal. It is suitable for domestic and weak industrial wastewater where settleable solids and most suspended solids are already removed by pretreatment.

In a nut shell the raw sewage is fed into the ABR, then flows into the AF and then to the PGF.

APPLICATION AREAS OF TREATED WATER OR WASTEWATER

Water, when treated and reused, can, in some cases, be adopted for drinking. Especially when water is treated using membrane or thermal technologies or a combination of them, it is able to achieve a very high standard of water after treatment. The quality of water that has been obtained after treatment has been well within the drinking water standards that have been set by agencies such as the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Union.

Wastewaters can be categorized according to their sources, benefits, applications, and the kind of treatment that is required. In this article wastewater has been classified according to its source such as gray water reuse, rain water reuse, industrial process water reuse, and effluent reuse.

Gray Water Reuse

Gray water is also referred to as grey water and sometimes called sullage. In general it refers to untreated household wastewater that has not come in contact with waste from the toilet. Gray water includes wastewater from bathtubs, showers, washbasins, clothes washing machines and laundry tubs and does not include wastewater from kitchen sinks or dishwashers or laundry water from washing of materials soiled with human excreta (diapers).

In general practice gray water cannot be reused as it is discharged along with the black water into the sewers. If the gray water is separated from the black water then it can be used, resulting in the reduction of fresh water consumption.

Gray water can be reused without pretreatment for applications such as agricultural or landscape irrigation (either household or larger scale). It is essential to make sure that the gray water is not in contact with humans and should be avoided when used for the irrigation of root crops and the edible parts of the crop. When gray water is being reused without pretreatment it should be ensured that it does not contaminate the ground water.

Effluent Reuse

The effluent from the wastewater treatment plants can be reused under a wide range of categories from agricultural to potable purposes. In the case of sewerage it is recycled with or without treatment to meet the necessary water quality requirements.

When effluent reuse is required to be used for agricultural or landscape irrigation then it is crucial to improve the quality and the quantity of production. This is because, worldwide, agriculture is the largest user of water and this sector is said to have close to 67% of total freshwater withdrawal in the world. Hence, it is essential that there are reused wastewaters for agricultural purposes so as to achieve sustainable water management. If it is achieved this would help in a more rational allocation of freshwater resources and the reduction of pollution of water bodies. Care should be taken to ensure that the reuse of wastewater for agriculture should not have a negative impact on the health of human beings. For agriculture the crops that need to be targeted should be carefully determined and the delivery of these treated wastewaters need to be planned. For example, care should be taken about nitrogen content in water so that it does not cause overgrowth, delayed maturity, and poor quality of crops when present in excess.

Effluents can also be reused for urban applications. Due to the increased consumption and high amounts of pollutant loading in the case of urban areas it is essential to introduce the concept of water and wastewater reuse. It is not essential that the quality of reused water needs to be as good as drinking water standards. In most cases, treated domestic wastewaters followed by a sand filter and disinfection unit can be used for nonpotable purposes in urban water reuse (toilet flushing, car washing, garden watering, planting, fire-fighting, and snow melting). Disinfection reduces the biofilm formation, which results in fewer adverse health effects on human beings.

Treated effluents can be used for environmental enhancement (augmentation of natural/artificial streams, fountains, and ponds in parks). Due to the urbanization of metropolitan areas, surfaces are covered with concrete buildings and tarmac roads, which has resulted in a lower water retention capacity. In addition, storm water drains rapidly drain and discharge the water to rivers/seas. This helps in the prevention of flooding, which would otherwise result in a poor water condition of the city.

There have been cases where treated wastewater is used as a restoration of a perennial stream or pond that contributes to the revival of aquatic life and scenery. The pathogenic removal could be achieved by technologies such as chlorination or UV irradiation. In addition to the hygienic aspect of the reused wastewater, the nitrogen and phosphorous content need to be removed to prevent the algal bloom. The algal bloom would not give a very aesthetic appearance to the stream. If there is an emphasis to the restoration of aquatic flora and fauna in the water bodies then it is essential that ozone or UV disinfection is adopted more than chlorination. The reason is that chlorination generates byproducts such as chloroamines in low levels.

Effluent reuse also finds its application in ground water recharge. Ground water recharge has several benefits when compared to that of aquifer recharge such as negligible evaporation, no contamination by animals, no algae blooming, and it is less expensive because no construction of pipelines is required. It also helps in the protection of ground water from the intrusion of saltwater in the case of coastal regions. This application has been prevalent in the United States.

Industrial Process Water

Industrial water use amounts to close to 20% of global freshwater withdrawals and, therefore, industries should be encouraged to look at better ways of sustainable wastewater management. The benefits of reusing wastewater for industries are the reduction of raw materials for the industry (water), reduction of wastewater toxicity and volume, and the reduction of discharge of high temperature effluent into the environment. The reuse of industrial process water could be for purposes such as internal recycling, heating in production process, or making hot water for domestic use through recovering its thermal energy. Care should be taken so that the industrial water reuse does not cause scaling, corrosion, biological growth, and fouling. This could be ensured by the removal of dissolved suspended solids, salts, ammonia, phosphorous, and residual organics by prior treatment using technologies such as flocculation and filtration.

TECHNOLOGY DRIVERS

Water Scarcity

Less than 1% of the world's water is fit for drinking. The remaining percentage of water is brackish. As a result there is an increasing need for fresh water, especially drinking water and clean water. This escalates the need for technologies that produce such high quality of water after treatment so that they do not cause any detrimental effect to either human beings or the environment. Membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology would certainly make previously unusable water sources such as brackish water, sea water, and other wastewater as an available source of water supply. When clean water is made available this would resolve the conflict of water that is currently existent.

Removal of Minute Particles

Membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology can remove very minute particles as they involve the attacking of the contaminants at the molecule level. They could even handle the removal of protozoan cysts, oocysts, and helminth ova, and, in some cases, bacteria and viruses. These technologies provide more effective alternatives to the treatment of challenging contaminants such as mercury, arsenic, and perchlorate in water and wastewater. As we slowly realize the impact of these contaminants on humans and environmental health, it has become increasingly essential to monitor these contaminants at trace levels, which cannot be done normally by conventional treatment methods such as filtration, flocculation, and precipitating methodologies.

However, this would depend on the kind of water and wastewater that needs to be treated and varies from a case to case basis. For example, certain kinds of wastewaters such as industrial wastewaters require the flocculation and precipitation methods. Hence, membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology in these cases would rather enhance the conventional methods than completely replace them.

Quality of Water

The quality of water that is obtained after the adoption of membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology is well within the requirements of agencies such as the EPA. It has been determined that these technologies are able to achieve 99.95% efficiency when compared to the conventional technologies. Hence, the water or the effluent that could be obtained after the treatment using these technologies could be reused for various domestic and industrial applications. In the case of water treatment they could be used for drinking purposes and in the case of wastewater treatment they could be used in industrial process applications.

Reduction of Chemical Usage

Traditional water treatment relies so much on the heavy usage of chlorine but then there have been instances where this method has been proved inefficient for sanitizing certain microbes such as cryptosporidium and protozoa. These contaminants cause detrimental effects to the environment and human beings if they are not properly removed from the waterways.

Membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology could be used as a replacement of chlorination, which is generally adopted for the disinfection of water and treated wastewater. This is largely preferred as there is a reduction in the adoption of chemicals that are normally done in the case of chlorination. Hence, the end result is water or treated wastewater that contains little amounts of chemicals. This would be safe for human beings.

Formation of Byproducts

Due to the heavy use of chlorine, the process of chlorination forms byproducts such as halomethanes that are carcinogenic. Some of the alternatives for chlorination have been oxidation and UV treatment. However, if there is a prefiltration offered to oxidation and ultraviolet treatment, this helps in increasing the treatment efficiency and minimizes the generation of byproducts such as halomethanes. Submicrometer filters such as electropositive nanoalumina could be adopted as they are effective in the reduction of organic carbon, thereby minimizing the amount of halocarbons that are formed.

TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES

Expensive Technology

Membrane technologies and nanotechnology are slightly expensive due to the purity levels of water they can produce. It is a rule of thumb that when the quality of the end product is good then the cost is high. For example, RO, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, and nanofiltration are considered expensive as the membranes are expensive compared to the other filter media that are adopted in the conventional treatment system such as slow sand filters. The former membrane technology also requires membrane replacement once in three to five years. When the efficiency of the membrane system goes down, it is mandatory to backwash and remove the particles that are caught up in these membranes. Backwashing would add on as a maintenance cost for these membranes. These membrane units also have problems such as scaling and membrane fouling (risk of bacterial contamination of the membranes). This would require added costs; hence, maintenance is also expensive when compared to conventional technologies. The operation of an RO plant requires a high quality standard for materials and equipment, which would add to the cost of desalination technologies.

Energy Intensive

Membrane technologies and nanotechnology generally use more electricity as they involve high-pressure systems and are therefore energy intensive. Thermal separation is more energy intensive than membrane separation. However, new membrane designs that involve low pressures are now used, which could overcome this challenge. For example, researchers at the University of California-Los Angeles have developed nanoparticles to create a membrane that does not get clogged very easily and also allows water to be pumped using less energy. This would also save the cost of desalination units.

Requires Pretreatment

Membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology require pretreatment in wastewater and in some cases in water too. For example, in RO, pretreatment is essential when particles such as sticks, leaves, trash, grease, suspended solids, organic substances, colloidal substances, and odor need to be removed before their application. This would prevent fouling and clogging of the membrane--which otherwise would reduce the efficiency of the membrane and decrease the quality of water generated after the treatment. One good large scale example is the failing of the Tampa Bay project in California, which was supposed to be commissioned by 2003. The project failed due to the lack of a proper pretreatment facility. This would add to the capital investment cost but would eventually even the cost of higher efficiency and longer life of the membrane. However, this is on a case-to-case basis where the pretreatment units would primarily depend on the kind of water and wastewater and contaminants that are present in them.

Careful Usage

Membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology cannot be adopted in all kinds of water and wastewater. They work best with groundwater or surface water that contains a low concentration of solids or in pretreated wastewater effluent. Hence, they require careful use of the technology to obtain the desired efficient results. Wastewater or water that contains a high amount of suspended solids should not be fed directly into these systems. This would reduce the efficiency of the units, and, if continuously done, would result in the replacement of the systems.

Handling of Reject

Membrane technologies, decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, and nanotechnology units require the handling of residuals and the disposal of the rejects that are basically concentrates of the waste. Generally, these rejects are transported to landfills and disposed. However, this would involve additional costs in the transportation and disposal of these concentrate waste materials.

The concentrate in the case of desalination technologies (membranes and thermal) is salty and very hot and when discharged into the sea affects marine life. Fish cannot cope with a salinity level higher than 1 ppm. The ecosystem under the sea or the ocean gets affected. Groundwater may also become impure due to seawater intrusion.

RESEARCH AT THE CORPORATE LEVEL AND AT UNIVERSITIES

University of California, Riverside, California

Nanosized materials have been gaining increasing interest in the area of environmental remediation because of their unique physical, chemical, and biological properties. The focus of research has been on the development of novel materials that have increased affinity, capacity, and selectivity especially with respect to heavy metals.

Researchers--Wilfred Chen, Ashok Mulchandani, and Mark Matsumoto--at the University of California, Riverside, California, have been working with nanoscale biopolymers with tunable properties for improved decontamination and recycling of heavy metals. The purpose of this research was to develop high affinity, nanoscale biopolymers with tunable properties for the select removal of heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, and arsenic.

Genetic and protein engineering are some of the latest tools that have been used for the construction of nanosized materials that can be controlled at the molecular level. With the evolution of DNA techniques, it has become a possibility to create artificial protein polymers with a new molecular organization.

The unique feature of these nanoscale biopolymers is that they are specifically preprogrammed within a gene template and can be controlled in terms of sizes, compositions, and functions at the molecular level. If this strategy is successful, then they would provide a low cost and environment friendly technology for the removal of heavy metals.

NanoH2O LLC, USA

RO membranes are used for the purification of contaminated freshwater, brackish water, and seawater. It is a process where there is enough pressure applied to salty or contaminated water that would force the freshwater through a membrane and reject the salts and contaminants. The industry standard RO membranes are polymer thin film composite membranes.

There has been a trend to use mixed matrix membranes as in the case of fuel cells and in gas separation membranes. NanoH2O LLC is an early stage company developing a new generation of RO membranes for water purification and desalination. These membranes use inorganic nanoparticles along with organic nanoparticles (mixed matrix membrane) for water purification. This is the first time that mixed matrix membranes have been applied to water purification. These membranes are still in the research and development stage and will be commercialized in the next three years.

These membranes have been developed by adding super hydrophilic nanoparticles to a polyamide thin film to form a thin film nanocomposite membrane. This increases the permeability of the membrane and also resists fouling. It is more effective in killing bacteria than the membranes currently available in the market.

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), USA

The EPA issued the first federal rule in March 2005 to completely reduce mercury emissions from coal fired plants. This was because EPA estimated that coal-fired power plants contributed to about 48 tons of mercury to the environment every year. Moreover, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that one in eight women exceed the permissible limits of mercury in their body. This posed a major concern to the United States to develop innovative technologies that would help in the regulation of the amount of mercury that is generated into the atmosphere.

PNNL has designed a technology called SAMMS technology to capture and remove mercury and other toxic substances from the waste streams. SAMMS, or Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports, is a technology that can be adopted to selectively remove metal contaminants without creating hazardous wastes or byproducts.

Tests were conducted at PNNL in simulated wastewaters and the tests were so successful that 99.9% of mercury was removed from it. This is well within the standard permissible discharge limits of EPA. Although the tests were tried out in simulated wastewater, SAMMS finds its initial market use for treating stack emissions from coal fired power plants, process industry, and municipal facilities.

Aravind Eye Hospital, Pondicherry, India

The performance of ABR-AF-PGF plant of capacity 450 [m.sup.3]/d that involves the ABR-AF-PGF connected in series is located at Aravind Eye Hospital, Pondicherry, India. The overall removal efficiency of the Aravind Eye Hospital DEWATS-Plant was 88% to 97% for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and 65% to 96% for chemical oxygen demand (COD). The unit is effective in removing nutrient levels to the required level of reuse in irrigation. The unit operated normally even during heavy rains and flooding, indicating that the system operation is safe even in extreme climates. The plant has been around for close to four years now.

It was found that the DEWATS units have a higher percentage of removal efficiency of BOD (88% to 97 %) and COD (65% to 96%) over the conventional activated sludge process (ASP) with BOD (80% to 85%) and COD (80% to 85%), and waste stabilization pond with BOD (50% to 85%) and COD (65% to 70%). In the case of ASP there is a lack of operational stability at times of excessive variation in rate of inflow and in the influent strength (CPHEEO, 2002). In the case of DEWATS units the load variation doesn't have any effect on the performance efficiency of the plant. It, therefore, can be an ideal replacement of conventional units with assets such as no power consumption, low maintenance cost, and no skilled labor required. The treated wastewater is used for landscape gardening and overhead tanks have been built for the storage of water for flushing (in future). It has not been a practice to date due to the mindblock that people have in using treated wastewater for toilet purposes. Therefore, this serves as a good alternative technology for the conventional ones such as ASP especially in the tropical regions.

APPLICATION ROADMAP

With respect to the various application areas such as industrial, irrigational, and recreational nonpotable urban reuse, ground water recharge and potable reuse the following could be concluded:

Applications such as industrial, irrigational, and recreational applications have been prominent and existent for the past five years. The reason for prominence could be the need for fresh water in these sectors. Treated water is sent to the common waterway in these application areas so that water shortage can be avoided.

Nonpotable urban reuse and ground water recharge could find its applications in another five to ten years. This is because of the uncertainty of the effects on human beings and the environment. Hence, these application areas lag behind the industrial, irrigational and recreational application sectors. However, studies are currently under way and these application areas would gain prominence in another five to ten years.

On the other hand, treating water or wastewater using nanotechnology for potable reuse will take time to set into the industry. This also primarily depends on the reports of the toxicity levels when released into the common waterway. Additionally, this also depends on the mind set of people and the level of acceptance of this technology.

TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Nanofiltration has been a prominent technology for the last five years. A lot of research and development has been taking place in this area for quite a while now. Nanofiltration units are currently used as prefiltration units for RO membranes so that they could avoid clogging or fouling of the membranes. Nanosensors have also been slowly accepted in the industry and they are heading toward commercialization.

The other technologies such as nanozeolites, nanocatalysts, nano Ti[O.sub.2], particles and magnetic nanoparticles are still under development. Probably in another five to ten years they would gain acceptance in the industry. Current research in the industry is focused on the use of natural materials as nanomaterials by slightly altering their chemistries. This would ensure the cost effectiveness and availability of these substances.

Desalination technologies are gaining prominence because of the degree of purity of water that can be obtained and the better handling of water shortage. Distillation and membrane technology have been around for quite some time. These technologies were expensive. However, a lot of research and development took place in the field of membrane technology. As a result of concentrated research in this area the price of membrane technology dropped by 80%. It is expected that the price will not drop significantly in the next decade as membranes are oil-based products and their prices depend on the price of crude oil.

Decentralized wastewater treatment systems are becoming prevalent now especially when there is a need to design and construct effective, reliable, cost-efficient, and custom-made wastewater treatment plants. The only challenge here is the handling of higher loads when compared to that of the desalination systems. Research is ongoing for companies to handle this issue.

PATENTS

United States Patent 7,144,511

December 5, 2006

Two stage nanofiltration seawater desalination system

Abstract

The present invention is directed to a method and apparatus for desalinating seawater utilizing a two stage seawater desalination system, a first stage including at least one high performance nanofiltration membrane to receive seawater feed pressurized by a first stage pump sufficiently and to produce a first permeate, and a second stage including at least one high performance nanofiltration membrane to receive the first permeate pressurized by a second stage pump to between about 200 psi and about 300 psi to produce potable water.

Inventors: Vuong; Diem Xuan (San Clemente, CA)

Assignee: City of Long Beach (Long Beach, CA)

United States Patent 7,090,780

August 15, 2006

Bactericide for use in water treatment, method for water treatment and apparatus for water treatment

Abstract

A water-treating microbicide, containing an inorganic acid and a corrosion inhibitor, and further containing a carboxylic acid having 8 or less carbon atoms or any of alkali metal salts thereof. The present invention can provide a water-treating microbicide, water treatment method and water treatment apparatus exhibiting a high sterilization effect in a membrane separation device for seawater desalination, etc.

Inventors: Ito; Akihiko (Otsu, JP), Oto; Katsufumi (Otsu, JP), Sugita; Kazuya (Otsu, JP), Fusaoka; Yoshinari (Otsu, JP) Assignee: Toray Industries Inc. (JP)

United States Patent 7,144,513

December 5, 2006

Water treatment method in high cycle dispensing systems for scale control

Abstract

The invention relates to a method that reduces limestone scale deposit on surfaces and in heating elements, especially, for drinking water in foodservice vending and dispensing machines without affecting the water quality. The method includes passing the water through metal particulate and polyphosphates to remove minerals therefrom and thus reduce scale deposits upon water contacted portions of such machines.

Inventors: Sher; Alexander A. (Danbury, CT), Clarke; Richard M. (New Milford, CT), Damiano; Dominick (Danbury, CT)

Assignee: Nestec S.A. (Vevey, CH)

United States Patent 7,144,510

December 5, 2006

Method and apparatus for treatment of a fluid stream

Abstract

A method for treating a fluid by providing a raw fluid to a process tank. The raw fluid may be water having varying degrees of contamination or another type of fluid. The method further consists of adding an ion exchange resin to the process tank to form a raw fluid/ion exchange resin mixture. After the fluid has been sufficiently contacted with the ion exchange resin, treated fluid is removed from the process tank through a membrane filter located within the process tank. The method is completed by regenerating the ion exchange resin within the same process tank.

Inventors: Mueller; Paul (Corvallis, OR), Myers; Anthony G (Franklin, WI)

Assignee: CH2M Hill Inc. (Englewood, CO)

CONTACTS

Shahid Chaudhry, Water Energy Efficiency Program Manager, California Energy Commission, 1516 Ninth Street, MS-29 Sacramento, CA 95814-5512. Phone: 916-654-4858. E-mail: [email protected]. URL: www.energy.ca.gov.

John Billingham, Business Development Manager, Veolia Water Solutions and Technologies, a division of VWS (UK) Ltd, Aqua House, 2620 Kings Court, Birmingham Business Park, Birmingham, B37 7YE, UK. Phone: 0-121-329-4000. D/D: 0-121-329-4011. Cell: 0-783-123-6686. Fax: 0-121-329-4001. E-mail: [email protected]. URL: www.veoliawaterst.co.uk.

Peter Eriksson, Global Technical Manager, GE Water & Process Technologies, 4636 Somerton Road, Trevose, PA 19053. Phone: 760-305-0193. Cell: 760-207-1065. Fax: 760-598-3335. E-mail [email protected]. URL: www.gewater.com.

Prof. Enrico Drioli, National Research Council--Institute on Membrane Technology (ITM-CNR), c/o University of Calabria--Cubo 17C, 87030 Rende CS, Italy. Phone: 0984-492039. Fax: 0984-402103. E-mail: [email protected]. URL: www. itm.cnr.it.

Christopher J. Koroneos, Laboratory of Heat Transfer and Environmental Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Box 483, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece. Phone: 2310-995968. Secretariat 996011. Fax: 2310-996012. E-mail: [email protected].

Gale Document Number:A167935862



© 2007 Gale, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson and Star Logo are trademarks and are registered trademarks used herein under license
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